14th-17th centuries – period of violent and sweeping change throughout Europe. Can’t frame Renaissance rhetoric chronologically – (Italian / Franco camps). In Italy rhetoric reclaimed some of power of Cicero/Isocrates in city – state system – central function in public life – source of collective social action.
Medieval Scholasticism – committed to a version of Aristotelian empiricism that stressed the knowledge of external reality rather than emphasizing the mind’s power to shape reality. Specialiced Latin for precision.
Italian Humanism - Petrarch revived classical notion of uniting broad learning, philosophical wisdom and eloquence. Initiated Renaissance strategy of attacking the rigidity of Scholasticism and limit view of Aristotle. According to Petrarch, the Renaissance scholar would pursue classical learning in the original Latin and Greek, have historical learning.
Italian humanists could see rhetoric and philosophy as united and understand meaning as historically established. Humanists recognized belief as conditioned by social convention. Humanism (intellectual movement) Human powers to change the word, scholar’s rights to knowledge without church constraint.
In Northern Europe, Jesuits adopted many humanist emphases, such as classical languages, rhetorical training, and attention to individual talent. 5 canons for preparing students for persuasion in public life. Curriculum = Ratio Studiorum 1586 – scholasticism - Humanist learning moved across Europe with printed books (Gutenberg 1450)
Educators sought methods for education in the 1500’s – Erasmus and Ramus
Ramus’ view of rhetoric as “mere style” became increasingly prevalent into 1700’s - violent rejection of Scholasticism – Ramus wished to throw off all authorities, classical or medieval – claimed more clear. Ramist influence grew in later sixteenth century.
End of Renaissance rhetoric often marked by founding of Royal Society of London 1660 (group of scientists and academics who announced themselves the enemies of eloquence, or at least of elaborate ornamentation in language to be used for the serious purposes of philosophy and science.
Changes of renaissance itself barely touched English Universities, where medieval Scholasticism continued to be taught
Descartes discourse on method (1637) regarded as starting point of modern science and end or Renaissance rhetoric. Historical knowledge (hightly valued by Italian humanists to help them appreciate culture of won times and future) -
Italian humanists also had support in the north; classical rhet preserved in Roman Catholic counter-reformation (humanistic education – Jesuits – drawing on Cidero, Quintilian, and Aristotle – live the virtues/ethos)
Humanism in England began with Sir Thomas More – follower of Valla as Christianized by Erasmus.
As Tudor dynasty took control of England, English humanism went through similar pressure as city-state governments became autocracies
As large-scale monarchies came to dominate European scene, rhetoric began to lose political importance and epistemic function.
Crisis of Rhetoric (1650-1740)
1660’s – all pretensions to public speaking disappeared and became writing. Jesuits were keepers of the Erasmian flame against Ramus and Port Royal school (catholic but Jansenist – sect, lots of guilt, no one is saved, go to confession and hope you get it right). Tremendous competition from Port Royal
Royal Society of London 1660- denounced eloquence (elaborate ornamentation of language used for “serious” purposes – science and philosophy) – seen as end of Renaissance rhetoric
Port Royal education – students spent all day writing. In Jesuit system half the day was recitation, no recitation in Port Royal. Port Royal became very Cartesian.
Port Royal created the perfect French Grammar – all logic and grammar responsible for French obsession with own language – perfect, clear, correct expression, dilation of texts, imitation, models, philosophical analyses, grammar as written argument – everything is writing. No metaphor – you can say anything without metaphor
No use for rhetoric – rhetoric of anti-rhetoric.
Jesuits modified the De Ratione by 1660’s they abandoned it and became almost indistinguishable from Port Royal – memorize rules and write
Practice disappeared and entire rhetoric education became exclusively writing and interior.
Port Royal produced many famous writers – Pascal (introspective in silent mental space), Montaigne (introspective and highly stylized)
Vico challenges this. The French and Italian schools are always at war – often over metaphor – French no metaphor, Italians rolling in metaphor.
Jesuits lost this battle and their education system and became silent. Over 400 years later, Ong debunked Ramus (he was still setting a Jesuit score”
The anti-rhetorical stance picks up steam with Descartes – Discourse on Method.
With Cartesian education came departments – faculty of Arts and Sciences broken apart . Before then no disciplines because faculty were united by method – disputation and Aristotle.
The scientific paper is analogous to Descartes – go through steps ne at a time, reader can follow and repeat to get same results. Before, science was an oration – not a review of steps.
Enlightenment (17th-19th centuries)
Expansion and Colonialism
Revolution in science, politics, philosophy
As experimental science and inductive reasoning replaces deductive logic as standard of inquiry, the Ramistic distinction became moot.
Ciceronian conception including all five canons (invention, arrangement, style, memory, delivery)
Begin to look at Literature as rhetorical (intended to please the reader to persuade poetry)
Nascent theories of psychology (Bacon)
Elocution of movement focused on delivery—looked also at nonverbal appeals to emotion.
17th C. Bacon apply reason to imagination to move the will, but reason alone is not enough, need eloquence.
Logic as equated with reasoning—separated from communication
Rhetoric for communication to all audiences—learned and popular.
About Pre-Modern Rhetoric
This category covers a wide swath of rhetors from the Middle Ages up until the turn of the Twentieth Century.Table of Contents
Major Trends
Renaissance (14th-17th centuries)
14th-17th centuries – period of violent and sweeping change throughout Europe. Can’t frame Renaissance rhetoric chronologically – (Italian / Franco camps). In Italy rhetoric reclaimed some of power of Cicero/Isocrates in city – state system – central function in public life – source of collective social action.Crisis of Rhetoric (1650-1740)
Enlightenment (17th-19th centuries)
Important Critics of Pre-Modern Rhetoric